The Age of Enlightenment

Towards the late 17th century and 18th century, a shift in thinking occurred. This shift known as the Enlightenment or the Age of Reason was an intellectual and cultural movement in the eighteenth century that emphasized reason over superstition and science over blind faith. Centered on the idea that reason is the primary source of authority and legitimacy, this movement advocated such ideals as liberty, progress, tolerance, fraternity, constitutional government, and separation of church and state. Thus was a sharp turn away from the prevailing idea that people needed to rely on scripture or church authorities for knowledge. The freethinking writers of the period sought to evaluate and understand life by way of scientific observation and critical reasoning rather than through uncritically accepting religion, tradition, and social conventions. There is little consensus on the precise beginning of the Age of Enlightenment, with the beginning of the 18th century or the middle of the 17th century often considered starting points.

In the mid-18th century, Europe witnessed an explosion of philosophic and scientific activity that challenged traditional doctrines and dogmas. The philosophic movement led by Voltaire and Jean-Jacques Rousseau argued for a society based upon reason rather than faith and Catholic doctrine, for a new civil order based on natural law, and for science based on experiments and observation. The political philosopher Montesquieu introduced the idea of a separation of powers in a government, a concept that was adopted by the authors of the United States Constitution.

Isaac Newton

There were two distinct lines of Enlightenment thought. The radical enlightenment inspired by the philosophy of Spinoza advocated democracy, freedom of expression, liberty, and eradication of religious authority. A second, a more moderate variety supported by Renè Descartes, John Locke, Isaac Newton, and others sought accommodation between reform and the traditional systems of power and faith. The main characteristic of the intellectual movement of the Age of Enlightenment was the emergence of personalities such as political reformists, religious skeptics, historians, cultural critics, and social thinkers. Among them were Mary Wollstonecraft, Adam Smith, Thomes Hobbes, Jean Condorcet, etc. Most philosophers who emerged in this era presented critical questions about the existing social system. They suggested that changes be made through political actions by holding campaigns for freedom of speech. It was these ideas that formed the basis of the French Revolution.

Although the philosophers of this era held different principles and political interests, they were all involved in finding the truth based on rational principles. They also held that the objectives of science were to enable man to conduct self-examinations, decide society's direction as well as handle and solve social, economic, and political issues. Scientific knowledge was of practical value and could be used to build a better society.

Ultimately, the Enlightenment fell victim to competing ideas from several sources. Romanticism was more appealing to less educated common folk and pulled away from the empirical, scientific ideas of earlier Enlightenment philosophers. Similarly, the theories of skepticism came into direct conflict with the reason-based assertions of the Enlightenment. Nonetheless, the discoveries and theories of the Enlightenment philosophers continued to influence Western society for centuries. The increased consumption of reading materials of all sorts was also one of the key features. The Industrial Revolution allowed consumer goods to be produced in greater quantities at lower prices, encouraging the spread of books, newspapers, pamphlets, and journals.